Instability, Ambiguity and Errors in the Communication Process Essay

Subjectivity and duality are linked pitfalls of the communication process. Limitations in the power of expression, constraints imposed by circumstances, social conventions and the desire to keep intentions covert, all contribute to people saying, writing and signaling thoughts and ideas that may be at variance from the whole truth. The effects of such shortcomings are magnified by matching limitations on the part of the individual or the group which is the object of communication. Since context is fluid, communication may cease to be relevant, even when conveyed and received with great clarity and accuracy. Thus the communication process can be no more durable than inevitable changes in perceptions, situations and aims. Mayhew (2002, p 3) has emphasized the essential nature of communication as a means of maintaining dialogue in modern society, and in order to resolve various shades of opinion that evolve on all issues of common concern. The element of instability may not arise from the communication process alone, but may be integral to the environment in which communication takes place (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992, p219). We cannot always blame communication for the instability in which it is forced to operate). An element of instability is almost inevitable in any communication that is not static. Communication instability can have roots in changing agenda of the encoder, media, noise and the through the intellectual evolution of the decoder as well. The term instability should be seen in communication terms without any necessarily negative connotation. The aspect of instability should also serve to warn encoders that their rivals as well ass noise may undermine their influence at any time. Communicators, for this reason, can never rest! High issue turnover sustain audience interest; excess stability can lead to boredom and even annoyed changes of perception. Errors may arise not just from encoding and decoding, but from noise. Noise may even add to the value and merits of information compared to the original transmission. Noise is an important source of errors in communication, whether perceived as beneficial or harmful (Shannon and Weaver, 1963, p19). Communication free of errors is utopian, and should be accepted in a positive spirit. Sensitivity to feedback and the ability to respond appropriately in terms of speed and modification are meaningful defenses against the inevitable and even at times useful errors that are part of the communication process. Windahl, Signitzer and Olson (1992, p205) also give the ambiguity of communication a utilitarian hue, by referring to the effect of political and other campaigns in the media, that spur people to search for additional information and even to action, based on the questions and curiosity that such ambiguity can arouse. Ambiguity can be used with good effect by skilled communicators. Many advertising campaigns, for example, may fail to meet set marketing objectives, if they present comprehensive and defined information in pedantic manner: intended targets may receive such communication and respond with inaction. Ambiguity can also help to attract attention in a situation full of noise. The onerous task of acquiring effective communication skills can be a thankless one, for its benefits and effects may be muddied by a lack of matching abilities on the part of the intended audience. A productive approach may be to study, mimic and adapt to the communication foibles of the other party, many disadvantages of language and customs as this may imply. Difficulties and obstacles to effective communication do nothing to undermine the importance and the value of related skills, difficult as they are to practice and to use. Communication ability, on the contrary, often becomes the deciding vote between success and failure, between victory and defeat, and between peaceful resolution and destructive violence, in all kind of transactions between individuals and groups. It is a means of intellectual distinction and of influence over the affairs of people at large. Signaling, Signification and the Code Model Signaling serves many important purposes in communication. A signal succinctly conveys a notion that may take many words and a long time to explain in normal language. A signal also bears the stamp of independent certification, thus endorsing a person or a view with the stamp of authentic authority. Finally, signals support obvious communication, supporting the overt message in subtle manner. An educational qualification, a professional or a social association and employment with an illustrious organization, are examples of signals and their benefits. We may presume to think that Mayhew is uncharitable in declaring that signaling is born in the assumption that others may not be honest during the communication process (2002, p 124). It would not be possible for any meaningful dialogue to take place within a reasonable period, if we had to communicate without signals. Signaling is also a valid response to the manner in which human minds function and form opinions. Signaling adds to the retention of communication, and thereby serves to fight competing communication and noise as well. Signification is a more basic aspect of communication than signaling, and one that is free of any implied criticism as we find with Mayhew. Signification relates to meaning. It has a valid base, since professional linguists can decide for us, the label value of each term. This does not mean that signification is elementary of free of controversy. Syntax and poor language ability can easily and commonly results in signification errors. The latter are especially common in verbal communication, especially in hasty situations when people cannot think as quickly and completely as they may be instigated to communicate. Signification capability improves with practice, and the most accomplished of people from all fields other than communication, may use spokespeople and writers to communicate better than their own powers of signification may allow. Artful changes of signification add to the elegance of communication (Silva Rhetoricae, 2002). Tropes and figures of speech are examples of some desirable changes in signification that may be used to enhance the value of communication. Signification is inseparable from the Code Model. Signification gives form and valid substance to the Code. However, all people may not be familiar with the formal dictionary meanings of words, which lead to communication errors in coding and decoding. Communication as a Means of Social Representation and Extension It is critical to the integrity of communication that practitioners distinguish between engaging others in dialogue, and the unethical tendency to exert overpowering influence on others. Differences in language abilities can become tools to impose on passive subjects in a manner that destroys individual freedom, and undermines development. Freire has recognized the power of literacy as a means of social development. Extension is not limited to mere transmission of messages, but maintenance of society over time; it has played key roles in impart and use of modern technologies and in achieving major changes in social behavior (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson 1992, pps 7 and 130). However, there are a number of casual settings in which extension objectives may degrade in to efforts to wield undue influence on the thought processes of others. It is therefore important to restrict extension efforts to facts that have strong foundations in evidence, though many communicators are not bound by such ethics. Mayhew has acknowledged the power of communication as used by people who seek to wield influence over others with whom they have affiliation and ties (2002, p 74). The communication process has the potential to induce desirable social change, but this should be through the path of developing strong conceptual abilities on an egalitarian basis. Social objectives can be undermined when education is either restricted or restrictive, thus giving some individuals superior signification abilities. This can prove to be especially manipulative when individuals with positional and resources strengths arm themselves with communication skills as well. The dangers of abuse of communication skills are as potentially deleterious in extension activities as they are in social representation within closely-knit groups of peers. However, the element of trust is likely to be much higher in an extension context, because of which the manipulation potential is also magnified. Widespread and uniform literacy with the ability for unrestrained critical thought is the only stable and durable way of preventing socially harmful and exploitative use of communication. This is the core value of Freire’s contribution to oppressed people everywhere. Pitfalls of Coding and Decoding The conversion of thoughts in to words and signs, and their translation by an audience, relate to the core and very delicate part of communication. The formation of words and signs to denote thoughts is the process of encoding, whereas the reverse by an audience is called decoding. Many of the processes of semiotics lie outside the conscious realm; they are also limited by the degree of literacy and facility with language. The processes of encoding and decoding are therefore fraught with dangers of errors and manipulation as well. The transport model of communication postulates the existence of a medium to convey thoughts from one individual to another, or between groups. Such a medium may vary in its degree of transparency, and can affect the veracity of decoding encoded messages. Distortion is also possible at the stage of encoding itself. The preferred meanings that we may wish to attach to words and signals are major instruments of errors in signal engineering. Such changes may also be intentional as in situations of propaganda. Judicious and deliberate encoding, as well as reflective and literate decoding, are some essential features for constructive dialogue, free of transport deficiencies. This is somewhat utopian in semiotic terms, and recognized as inevitable distortion, though it may vary widely in degree and differ by way of intent. A full understanding of the processes of encoding, decoding and use of media is crucial for the understanding of many contemporary phenomena in the worlds of social development, political evolution and industrial psychology. Mayhew has recognized its integral role in modern politics (2002, p 249). Accurate encoding and semantic decoding hold the keys to errors that even redundancy cannot substitute (Shannon and Weaver, 1963, pps 26, 71). They are therefore instrumental in effective communication, and in preventing both unintended misunderstandings and intentional noise that may be interjected in the system. Discourse and Miscommunication Sustained communication, as in a discourse, naturally multiplies encoding and decoding errors. Such a process lays the basis for basic and seemingly insurmountable misunderstandings. Edward Said has used the perception of the Orient (or the Middle East, which was his principal concern,) as an example of a misconception being perpetuated by a process of sustained discourse. Distortions that arise from discourse arise principally because individuals and groups have designated sources of information on which they depend, to decode information about entities and subjects of which they have no first-hand experience. Style is not an optional feature of discourse, because ideas cannot be communicated effectively without a degree of ornamentation (Silva Rhetoricae, 2002). Differences in styles used by encoders on the one hand, and styles to which decoders are accustomed on the other, may affect the integrity of the communications process. Mayhew has presented the same concepts as Said in the business light of Advertising, Market Research and Public Relations (2002, p206). Here, style variations may be used intentionally in discourse to affect perceptions and basic decoding processes. The manipulation of public opinion on a variety of matters through structured communication is a significant weapon of both politicians and business people. It is an important industrial application of communication skills. Commentators such as Edward Said have lamented the abuse of communication potential to create misrepresentations and distortions of public perception. Some parties may be excluded from parts of a discourse, which leads to misunderstandings, as they are not privy to the same facts, opinions and other inputs (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson1992, p 149). This is another insidious aspect of the potential for discourse to affect the realization of truth by large numbers of people with no direct access to undistorted facts. Literacy, common facility with language, equal access to transparent media and the ability for critical appraisal of issues, are certain safeguards against misrepresentation and unintentional errors in discourse and other forms of communication. Primary education and literacy for deprived adults are therefore essential tools for those who aim for egalitarianism and justice in the field of communication. Propaganda and more Ethical Forms of Influence Propaganda is marked by a unitary objective to encode and transmit, over-riding noise, feedback and any other form of influence on the transmission process (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992, p 91). It is a feature of many attempts at the business function of public relations by large organizations. Propaganda sees the decoder as a virtually passive object, who seems to have no rights to their own opinions, much less the universal access to factual information! Propaganda is ineffective in literate circumstances, and can prove to be counter-productive, through loss of trust. Propaganda favors mass media such as television that can deliver quick results and which traditionally discourage or disable feedback mechanisms in the short-term (Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992, p 154). Exhibitions and exchanges are examples of relatively ‘slow’ media that do not lend themselves to propaganda aims. National aims are often touted as justification for propaganda. Though propaganda has some negative decoding in the public mind, it is in essence putting forward an idea with a certain agenda. Mayhew seems to acknowledge the authenticity of using eloquence to reinforce some ideas (2002, p 47). Professionally therefore, propaganda should not be seen as less or different than the related processes of propagation and diffusion, though the latter operates more at the informal and individual level. Much of Edward Said’s problems with the Occidental perception of Palestine could be seen in retrospect, as degrees of propaganda, propagation and diffusion. Rumors stand apart, for they lack the foundations in facts, and they often generate from sources that lack authority. Rumors always remain below the surface, and do not appear in official and open forms of communication. This does not mean that rumors lack potency; rather they can be even more damaging than propaganda in shaping public opinion. The insidious circulation of rumors is especially effective when overt communication transactions are lacking. Diffusion is one of the most professional means available for sanguine communicators ((Windahl, Signitzer and Olson, 1992, p 57). Though it is a slow process, it has the benefit of durability and leads to long-term credibility of the best communicators. Diffusion uses a two-step process as a model and networking. Diffusion can produce revolutionary changes in opinions and habits, albeit in very phased and gradual manner. Diffusion suits those with long-term communication goals. It is a valid counterfoil to the bluster of propaganda. How Trust Fosters Successful Communication There can be no effective communication without degrees of faith and reliance. Decoding errors are more likely if the degree of trust in an encoder is low. Trust may be born in authority, but communication is more durable if the dependence is based on shared values and good experiences. Encoders have therefore to bear in mind that a single reason for loss of trust can very quickly result in a breakdown of communication that has been built over a long period. The most enduring communication campaigns, both in politics and commerce, are born in consistent support of espoused causes. Mayhew has said that even rhetoric is based on trust (2002, p 14). Mayhew is critical of some nuances of trust in communications, as it can be abused by encoders to prevent full discourse and to evade accountability. Social development depends in large measure on the trust that people have in communication from agents of change. This is a major challenge for state media and also for international agencies that wish to make impacts on communities in emerging nations, and in the aftermath of natural disasters and after times of distress. Support for new developments in technology may also be hampered by the lack of trust in the minds of lay public for sources of such information that are viewed as being biased. The aspect of trust presents special challenges in the new field of Internet communication, where the intended audience may have no direct experience with the sources of such information. We may conclude by stressing the invaluable role of trust in communication. As Mayhew has observed, solidarity depends on interdependence rather than uniformity; people will look for alternate encoders if they lose trust in established sources of information (2002, p 16). Windahl, Signitzer and Olson have repeatedly stressed the vital role of trust in various phases of the communication process (1992, pps 55, 62, 88, 103). The Motivating Force of Communication in Social Influence We learn from history that the force of communication is more sustained and influential than the use of force. The latter may produce some transient compliance, but only consistent advocacy can succeed in shaping and changing opinion. This concept applies in equal measures for both individual thought and for group action. The quality of signification in terms of its suitability for the intended audience, the peripheral support of signals and the consistent of transport across all available media, contribute to the motivating power of communication. People are known to undertake the most heroic and other forms of extreme action, under the influence of effective communication. Mayhew draws our attention to how governments use professionals from the world of advertising to try and wield influence over banks of voters (2002, p 7). Communication backed by appropriate media, can steer people towards forceful and aimed action. However, Mayhew warns that the persuasive power of communication can be misleading (2002, p 129). There is the important distinction at this stage, between factual statements, which are neutral, statements of identification that promote solidarity, and thereby appeal to irrational reaches of the decoding mind. Mayhew stresses the creative use of rhetoric to move people to action (2002, 129). The communication process may use inventive sentences with the intention to deceive. The influential power of communication may therefore be devoid of ethical merit. This cannot, unfortunately, detract from its efficacy! The power of communication campaigns to move large groups towards concerted action is a dangerous weapon amongst people who are unable to decode messages accurately, and who cannot reflect critically on the inputs to which they are subject. Such distortions are often more clear in retrospect than during the heat of a campaign. Motivation on issues beyond rational thought, such as related to religion, and on matters for which common people have no way of unbiased validation, as before war, are especially harmful in their immense powers. Contradictory Balances of Deception and Cooperation in Communication Models Communication models trace the flow of interaction between two entities. They serve both to understand the process and to determine strategies. All models must have the three universal components of sender, receiver and medium or channel. Early communication models depicted the process in linear manner from source and encoder to a receiver through a channel and a decoding procedure. Sources of noise were the only sides to this simplistic straight line. We know now that communication involves feedback, and is therefore a complex and non-linear process. The relative roles of deception and cooperation will not change depending upon the chosen model, for the latter is only a conceptual representation of a unitary reality. The game begins with the initiator of a communication. He or she has the discretion to use a valid source, or to pretend to have one. This person must be both skilled and committed to accurate encoding, and should know which channels and how many to use at each point in time. The initiator has also to be sensitive to feedback and to adapt subsequent transactions accordingly. Cooperation lies largely in the domain of the recipient, decoding as best as he or she can, and reflecting critically on inputs, with meaningful feedback and requests for supporting evidence. Mayhew has noted the role of deception in advertising campaigns as a 20th century phenomenon (2002, p 193). The endorsement of cigarettes by celebrities has been cited as the most powerful and terrifying of all deceptions used by the media. Interpersonal cooperation, on the other hand is a way of establishing relevance (2002, p 12). We may conclude that cooperation is a key factor in intimate communication between individuals, whereas deception works most effectively in campaigns conducted through the media. Brevity and Verbosity Feedback often instigates verbosity. Redundancy may be rooted in assumptions about the conceptual and decoding capabilities of an audience, or in excessive enthusiasm in a point of view. Propaganda aims may require repetition beyond the requirements of more neutral and virtuous communication. However, feedback may provide a justifiable reason for verbosity. They is a natural tendency to repeat oneself, as in a selling situation in which the customer appears unconvinced or even distracted. Verbosity also serves to allay anxieties of encoders and communicators. The imperative to succeed as when seeking financial succor or support, for example may bring forth a torrent of words far more voluminous than an audience may desire. Begging is an extreme form of communication in which brevity can be counter-productive! A more serious limitation of brevity is its ability to serve a multiplicity of communication objectives. Professional advertisers would love for their industrial clients to limit the number of points they want to convey; paying clients may be greedy and so involved with their brands, that they require a unitary buying benefit to be presented in as many ways as possible! We may conclude that verbosity is a failing of amateurs; it is shunned by the best communicators, who treasure the transport of concepts with as few signals as possible. However, amplification may be considered as a good reason for a degree of the stylistic vice that is verbosity (Silva Rhetoricae, 2002). Semiotics can reduce the tendency to be verbose, especially between homogenous groups which are accustomed to communicating with each other. The development of trust is also efficacious in keeping communication as brief as possible, without sacrificing completeness. Verbosity can therefore be an indicator of the lack of trust and of wide chasms between the cultural and linguistic preferences of people. This could be a reason for the long-windedness from which bodies such as the General Assembly of the United Nations seem to suffer! A Pragmatic Approach to Semiotics Communication Science, Semiotics and other Cognitive Processes cannot be seen in isolation of each others. Professional communicators and professional enthusiasts of the process have been accused by many commentators of exaggeration to the point of exclusion of necessary attendants (Windahl, Signitzer, Olson, 1992, p 18). Semiotics has always had a major role in communication theory, and modern users of mass media have heaped increasing loads of importance of this branch of insight in to human minds). Semiotics is an exact and an exacting field of endeavor, and its rigors can easily prove irrelevant to some sections of a heterogeneous audience. Focused targeting on sharply defined segments can make better sense of semiotics in communication, but real life often demands that a single transaction of a communications process necessarily reaches out to a diverse audience. The Chairman of a business Corporation has to bear in mind that the public use of semiotics may lead to varying degrees of decoding errors by categories of stakeholders with contradictory goals. Employees, vendors, regulators, investors and competitors will respond to a set of semiotics in different ways. The effect of semiotics on the enemy places an even greater burden on spokespeople of the warring sides and on political leaders of all shades of opinion. Pragmatism must often dominate semiotics in real life, especially when unitary signification is within the reach of diverse decoders, each with their own needs and objectives. Effective communication is rare if the social and cultural nuances of linguistics are discarded in the interests of semiotic perfection. The latter does not have many universal manifestations in any case. Pragmatic perlocution is often the result of a communicative action, though other forms of decoding could be considered as valid (Eco, 1978, p 65). Such pragmatism may be born out of the exigencies of a situation, apart from cultural distinctiveness of decoding. Communicative Action and Perlocution Locution refers to the uttered word, illocution to the intention behind the communication, and perlocution refers to the effect of locution in terms of producing action (Cutting, 2003, p 16). Speech Act theory refers to the relationships between and the sequences of illocution, locution and perlocution. Locution, illocution and perlocution are integral parts of communication. Illocution is the first step, as we cannot have any communicative action shorn of some intention. Locution can reflect illocution only to the extent that the encoder is literate and careful in signaling. Perlocution skills are similar to those of locution, except that they relate to the decoder, rather than to the originator of the communicative action. Communicative action and perlocution are therefore only the signification of the communicative process in codes that are not widely understood! Nevertheless, they serve to display the communication process in analytical light for the professional and for the enthusiast as well. Adianoeta are examples of signification in which signification can have authentic differences in perlocution (Silva Rhetoricae, 2002). Allegory and irony are related techniques of transmitting ideas and of attracting attention and exerting influence over perceptions. However stylistic vices are also inherent in many aspects of communicative action. Most communicative action will suffer from some bias or even error due to illocution on the part of encoders, their locative powers and the perlocution abilities of individual members of a diverse audience. Speech acts are limited by culture (Cutting, 2003, p 21). The use of words and their meanings have major differences across countries, and sometimes between ethnic groups in a single nation. A compliment within the confines of a community may be taken as insulting in another! This is a drawback of the Speech Act theory. Â  Colloquialisms and figures of speech that gradually creep in to everyday language as used by the laity can render the Speech Act irrelevant to some extent. The pedantic meanings of words can vary from common perceptions that evolve over time. Most communities prefer to accord precedence to such conventions over original root meanings. Therefore the use of the Speech Act to analyze real life communication processes may be prone to debilitating errors. Many expressions of feedback also fall outside the purview of the Speech Act, because decoding is at variance from the purist line. Finally, the Speech Act is deficient to analyze precisely communication that includes incomplete sentences. The latter are normal reactions to feedback that communicators receive during the course of discourse and dialogue. Incomplete sentences may also be used to create drama, humor, sarcasm and intimacy. Communicators have to be sensitive to the perlocution results of target audiences, and to adapt their locative techniques accordingly. Some errors may be due to the medium, and it takes long years of experience, with consummate instinct to distinguish between various possible sources of error that lead to unplanned communicative action. Similarly, perlocuters have to be wary of differences between expressed locution, distortions of media and noise and the true illocution of an encoder. Such potential errors are easier to manage over time and with repeated communicative transactions. Concluding Remarks Communication is a complex but universal and essential part of human life as a social species. It is shared by people with many earlier forms of life, but probably most evolved and certainly best understood within the context of our own cognitive abilities. Variations of signification lie at the deepest root of many communication errors. A universal lexicon, as used to some extent in the enunciation of law, serves to improve the accuracy of communication to an extent where independent and binding resolution of differences is possible. Opacity of media and environmental noise are common and highly significant sources of distortions and errors in the communication process. They are often clearer in review mode than during actual operation, whereas hidden aspects of illocution are more difficult to uncover without ambiguity. Linear models of communication are as ineffective as they are archaic. The roles of feedback and noise are essential elements of any template of productive and desirable communication. However the linear force of propaganda can be stunning when used with unbalanced force on groups of people with low literacy levels. Politics, relationships between nations and branding of industrial goods and professional services are the most powerful and remunerative applications of communication theories, though the process is relevant to all interaction between individuals. Communications have been used to subjugate people, imposing pervasive influence over perceptions and opinions of large groups of people with inferior literacy, comprehension and analytical skills. Equal access to quality primary education is therefore a primary weapon of mass empowerment. Communication skills, not just for encoders, but for decoders as well, are potent though non-violent shields against pernicious propaganda by vested interests of the elite. There is a need for more widespread appreciation of the role and nature of communication. The validity of some key theories and the efficacy of painstakingly developed techniques are adversely affected by imbalances between parties in a communication process. Pragmatism often wins the day against the elegance of semiotics and related disciplines. Diffusion based on valid and factual inputs, respectful of feedback, is a certain and virtuous, if slow means to eminent communication. Cultural and linguistic differences between people are the most important obstacles to utopian states of communication; the development, maintenance and reinforcement of mutual trust are amongst the most reliable facilitators of ideal communication between individuals and between groups as well. References Cutting, J 2003, Pragmatiics and Discourse, Routledge (UK) Eco, U 1978, A Theory of Semiotics, p 65, Indiana University Press Mayhew, LH 2002, The New Public: Professional Communication and the Means of Social Influence, Cambridge University Press Windahl, S, Signitzer, B, and Olson JT, 1992, Using Communication Theory, Sage Publications Incorporated Shannon, CE and Weaver, W, 1963, Mathematical Theory of Communication, pps 26, 71, University of Illinois Press Silva Rhetoricae, 2002, retrieved January 2006 from

Gastritis and Its Consequence

Gastritis is an inflammation of the lining of the stomach, and has many possible causes. [1]The main acute causes are excessive alcohol consumption or prolonged use ofnonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (also known as NSAIDs) such as aspirin or ibuprofen. Sometimes gastritis develops after major surgery, traumatic injury, burns, or severe infections. Gastritis may also occur in those who have had weight loss surgery resulting in the banding or reconstruction of the digestive tract. Chronic causes are infection with bacteria, primarily Helicobacter pylori, chronic bile reflux, and stress; certain autoimmune disorders can cause gastritis as well. The most common symptom is abdominal upset or pain. Other symptoms are indigestion, abdominal bloating, nausea, and vomiting andpernicious anemia. Some may have a feeling of fullness or burning in the upper abdomen. A gastroscopy, blood test, complete blood count test, or a stool test may be used to diagnose gastritis. Treatment includes taking antacids or other medicines, such as proton pump inhibitors or antibiotics, and avoiding hot or spicy foods. For those with pernicious anemia, B12 injections are given, but more often oral B12 supplements are recommended. Many people with gastritis experience no symptoms at all. However, upper central abdominal pain is the most common symptom; the pain may be dull, vague, burning, aching, gnawing, sore, or sharp. Pain is usually located in the upper central portion of the abdomen, but it may occur anywhere from the upper left portion of the abdomen around to the back. Other signs and symptoms may include: †¢ Nausea Vomiting (if present, may be clear, green or yellow, blood-streaked, or completely bloody, depending on the severity of the stomach inflammation) †¢ Belching (if present, usually does not relieve the pain much) †¢ Bloating †¢ Early satiety Loss of appetite †¢ Unexplained weight loss Acute Erosive gastritis is a gastric mucosal erosion caused by damage to mucosal defenses. Alcohol consumption does not cause chronic gastritis. It does, however, erode the mu cosal lining of the stomach; low doses of alcohol stimulate hydrochloric acid secretion. High doses of alcohol do not stimulate secretion of acid. NSAIDs inhibit cyclooxygenase-1, or COX-1, an enzyme responsible for the biosynthesis of eicosanoids in the stomach, which increases the possibility of peptic ulcers forming.. Also, NSAIDs, such as aspirin, reduce a substance that protects the stomach called prostaglandin. These drugs used in a short period are not typically dangerous. However, regular use can lead to gastritis. Chronic Chronic gastritis refers to a wide range of problems of the gastric tissues. The immune system makes proteins and antibodies that fight infections in the body to maintain a homeostatic condition. In some disorders the body targets the stomach as if it were a foreign protein or pathogen; it makes antibodies against, severely damages, and may even destroy the stomach or its lining. In some cases bile, normally used to aid digestion in the small intestine, will enter through the pyloric valve of the stomach if it has been removed during surgery or does not work properly, also leading to gastritis. Gastritis may also be caused by other medical conditions, including HIV/AIDS, Crohn's disease, certain connective tissue disorders, and liver or kidney failure. [10] Diagnosis Often, a diagnosis can be made based on the patient's description of his or her symptoms, but other methods which may be used to verify gastritis include: †¢ Blood tests: †¢ Blood cell count †¢ Presence of H. pylori †¢ Pregnancy †¢ Liver, kidney, gallbladder, or pancreas functions †¢ Urinalysis †¢ Stool sample, to look for blood in the stool †¢ X-rays †¢ ECGs †¢ Endoscopy, to check for stomach lining inflammation and mucous erosion †¢ Stomach biopsy, to test for gastritis and other conditions Treatement Over-the-counter antacids in liquid or tablet form are a common treatment for mild gastritis. Antacids neutralize stomach acid and can provide fast pain relief. When antacids do not provide enough relief, medications such as cimetidine, ranitidine, nizatidine orfamotidine that help reduce the amount of acid the stomach produces are often prescribed. [15] An even more effective way to limit stomach acid production is to shut down the acid â€Å"pumps† within acid-secreting stomach cells. Proton pump inhibitors reduce acid by blocking the action of these small pumps. [15] This class of medications includes omeprazole, lansoprazole, rabeprazole, andesomeprazole. Proton pump inhibitors also appear to inhibit H. pylori activity. Cytoprotective agents are designed to help protect the tissues that line the stomach and small intestine. They include the medications sucralfate and misoprostol. If NSAIDs are being taken regularly, one of these medications to protect the stomach may also be taken. Another cytoprotective agent is bismuth subsalicylate. Many people also drink milk to relieve symptoms, however the high calcium levels actually stimulate release of gastric acid from parietal cells, ultimately worsening symptoms. In addition to protecting the lining of stomach and intestines, bismuth preparations appear to inhibit H. pylori activity as well. Several regimens are used to treat H. pylori infection. Most use a combination of two antibiotics and a proton pump inhibitor. Sometimes bismuth is also added to the regimen. The antibiotic aids in destroying the bacteria, and the acid blocker or proton pump inhibitor relieves pain and nausea, heals inflammation, and may increase the antibiotic's effectiveness.

Dilemma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dilemma - Essay Example He should not receive anything of economic value other than those required or allowed by law because it might influence him in the discharge of his duties as a public official. His actions do not represent the greater good. He is the only one benefiting from the gifts that he receives. Locke would have addressed the problem of the Mayor by saying that he believes that there is no harm in accepting the gifts given to him. He will perceive the Mayor as one who has a conscience and will be guided by his sense of goodwill, so much so that he will not let the gifts affect the discharge of his duties. The answer of Locke differs from one’s opinions because one is more aware of the growing incidence of graft and corruption in government nowadays. One believes that the college instructor is pursuing her doctorate degree at the expense of the student’s learning. She is only concerned about her welfare and does not take into consideration what effect it has on the students. Her actions do not represent the greater good. As a professor, she has a responsibility to enrich and enhance the students’ learnings. She should at least exert an effort to improve her lectures and keep it updated. If Locke were to address this problem, he would say that it is but natural for the professor to act that way because each individual is driven by self-interest. Locke might say that the professor is just doing that because he is protecting his self-interest and that it does not do any harm to the students anyway. Locke’s ethics is different than mine because Locke seems to always look at the good side of every individual. He thinks that persons do not mean any harm to anybody. One considers the decision of Todd and Edna to have a child to solve their marital problems is the worst solution to their problem. Having a child will not solve Edna’s drinking problem and Todd’s employment problem. Edna’s drinking problem will have a bad effect on the baby. On

Political and Symbolic Deaths, Struggles for Meaning and Survival Assignment

Political and Symbolic Deaths, Struggles for Meaning and Survival - Assignment Example The film depicts situational irony, wherein because of death anxiety, people want to assert life-affirming ideologies, and yet the more that they do so, the more that they end up hurting others and themselves when one of the best ways to handle it is to simply live and co-exist. Death anxiety shows that one of the greatest ironies in life is that the more people want to preserve life, the more they hurt others to do so. Some people become inhumane because of death anxiety, and they exhibit this through prejudice and discrimination (Flight from Death). Associate Professor of Social Work at Illinois State University Daniel Liechty asserts that to fight death anxiety, â€Å"One of easiest ways to make [people] feel more than mortal is to stand as the conqueror of someone else, so there’s this†¦tendency†¦to want to lift [themselves] up by elbowing people down† (Flight from Death). Prejudice and discrimination help people feel better and secure with their lives by believing that they are superior to others. McHugh shows the discrimination of the speaker of the poem against Germans: â€Å"where it must have been abandoned by/the German visitor (was there a bus of them?)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (27-28). ... Flight from Death emphasizes that when people fear death, they tend to overgeneralize people. Jeff Greenberg, Psychology Professor of the University of Arizona, notes that after 9/11, a number of people are so deeply disturbed of being reminded of their death that they killed a man wearing a turban when he was an Indian Sikh (Flight from Death). He stresses that because of the heightened reminder of death, several people resort to scapegoating and generalization (Flight from Death). The makkoli vendor in Krukowski’s story detests the generalization. In the end, he does something symbolic: â€Å"[He] pours the white liquid into a paper cup, eyes locked with ours. Still smiling, he pours it on the ground† (Krukowski 9). The action signifies that he does not care what he is selling because his occupation does not define his existence. When a group of people sees another as different, they fear death that come from clashing ideologies, so they denigrate the other as inferio r. Another way of hurting others is through competing with them in a rat race culture. Sheldon Solomon, a Professor of Social Psychology at Skidmore College, says that the American culture perpetuates death anxiety, even more through its various social expectations. He notes that it is not enough to be a person with integrity because they must also be rich, beautiful, famous, or extremely thin (Flight from Death). Otherwise, they are more likely to feel wanting in the world and more anxious about their mortality (Flight from Death). Krukowski exemplifies competitiveness in the real world that drives people’s fortunes: â€Å"Clue to the power of silent movies: Clara Bow’s career was ruined when sound revealed her heavy Brooklyn accent.  

Discussion Stories and the Communication Model Essay

Discussion Stories and the Communication Model - Essay Example In all four scenarios, different types of information are gathered, shared and saved in different ways. Like information can be shared through email, electronic documents, voice recording and web presentations. It can be stored directly through web pages means in a digital form or it can be printed through print out and filed them in files. This document which is assembled in the file will be a great asset for the organization. For storing a collaboration experience, you must have knowledge that that has done and stored those types of experiences, awareness of from where the information of the experience will be available and from where you can find that information. I have done research in collaboration in which our group members do not have a time to do research in same time and same place so we prefer to do research in same time, different place. In a same time, different place our group members have done research and sharing information in a same time and different places very easily through chatting, video conference, teleconference, through email, applications/white board sharing, group calendaring and through different resources. Our group members have adopted all these steps for doing that research successfully. Winkler, Ramona. (2002). Keywords and Definitions Around "Collaboration". SAP: The Best Run business Run Sap, Retrieved on 4th January 2012 from

Discuss the art work in the Cantor Arts Centre in Standford University Essay

Discuss the art work in the Cantor Arts Centre in Standford University - Essay Example This means that some of the artworks in the museums are obtained freely from the people who made them, and who have the full rights. People are in some cases driven to present artworks in museums by the desire to promote their cultures or represent the general coexistence of creatures in their environment. Through this, people understand and keep information about the culture that is represented by a work of art and are able to explain some information. In describing the work of art in a museum, it is important to identify the piece of work represented, the artist and the issues that prevailed during the time of production. This is important in understanding the work in different dimensions as well as getting the understanding of the feeling of people concerning the work (Payne and Picasso 8). The Lion Reclining in a Landscape The Lion Reclining in a Landscape is an artwork that is exhibited in Cantor Arts Center in Stanford University as part of the pieces of art that are representi ng the nature through a lion in an environment. The artwork was created as an original artwork by an artist, Antonie Luios Barye, who lived in America between the year 1796 and 1875, to represent the correlation between animals and their environment. This image was presented to different museums for exhibitions under the authority of the Barye who owned the piece of art and is availed to all the people who visit such museums for the viewing. This image is presented as a drawing that is made on a paper and is placed in the shelves for viewing by all the interested visitors in such museums. One of the places where Barye presented this image is the Cantor Arts Center in Stanford University where it is presented to the public for viewing. Through the work of art, people are able to understand different issues and this is in accordance to the views of the people concerning Barye and his piece of art. The piece of art that was presented in the 19th century as a primary creation but it has undergone reproduction with time so as to keep it in the records. The Lion in a Landscape image, although old and replicated by other people by copying the original image, is accepted favorably by the people who view it from the different museums in which it is exhibited. In the event of painting the image, the artist was presented was affected by different circumstances in the environment that made the different features to be prevalent in the image (Payne and Picasso 29). Antonie Luios Barye lived under his father who worked as a goldsmith and familiarized himself with the work of making sculptures and his skills were perfected by his working with different companies and training in different institutions. He continued in his work to demonstrate his interest in animals and that led him to production of images that were representing them in different ways. This means that all his production was designed according to his preferences in animals within the environment (Payne and Pica sso 59). During the time of production of Lion in a Landscape, the political environment was dominated by the Roman Empire who valued sculptures and drawings of their images. Economically, Barye produced his artworks during the time of gold

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of UK participation in single Research Proposal

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of UK participation in single currency euro .will the British business be better or worse off if u decides to participate - Research Proposal Example After establishing the rough draft, it was proof read to see where it was lacking. After identifying the lack in the draft, further evidence and research work was added to authenticate each word and to ensure that the words are meaningful, and depict research and analysis. Again the draft was formulated, again read, revised and the process was conducted a few times, and finally when it was felt that the final version is ready, it was proof read a final time, before adding reference list, in text citations, appendices, etc. I then gave it to a mentor for a check to ensure things were all correct. A few issues were identified which were resolved then and there only. Finally, the work was ready to be submitted. It took me a good 3 days to complete the work and ensure that it was completed.

NEEDS DOCUMENT, USE CASES, AND SCENARIOS Assignment

NEEDS DOCUMENT, USE CASES, AND SCENARIOS - Assignment Example The need of ERP SAP system is a need of most of Riordan dealers and customers with which Riordan would be capable to exchange logistic and investment files for application of Electronic Data Interchange(EDI). This would simplify the procedure of data exchange and lessen high costs of printing and documents mailing. Problem Statement To incorporate their complex operations as well as create a better more receptive and proficient information technology. Project Goals To integrate the functioning of various departments and work locations by providing a common software platform which will acts as a common information system for the entire organization? The Project purpose is to alleviate the warehouse management system to allow easy purchase and recording of transactions. Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) gives efficient solutions to how the company controls its inventory and manufacturing procedures. Raw materials receiving, production, and the end product distribution are the three sections of inventory and manufacturing processes. Improvements in each of these sections will necessitate updating or fresh implementation of a computer system that will ensure accuracy, bestow unrivaled customer service, and most of all save the corporation money and time. Riordan existing system is a seven step procedure that includes a different document for each step. These procedures are costly and time consuming, which deter future growth toward expanding into an international organization. They include: Scheduled orders documentation; Receiving documentation; Raw materials or sub-assemblies documentation; Orders received documentation; Sub-assembly and end-product documentation; Sales order form procedures and Shipping documentation. Along with each of these procedures an inventory personnel is responsible inputting the information into a database or computer, which could imaginably be taken as 14 separate procedures. Through broad study, the research team believes that Rio rdan inventory and manufacturing procedure would be greatly enhanced by employing a Warehouse Management System, also known as WMS. According to Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) expertise this system gives all subsections inside a venture. Project benefits A Warehouse Management System helps every division within the factory instantly and effortlessly to recover any and all essential records, shipping and receiving information. Riordan Manufacturing Company declares in the mission proclamation that one of the company’s goals is to make its commodities available to clients. Riordan Manufacturing will fruitfully achieve the goal of making the company’s products available to customers by employing the use of shipping tag printers, hand held computer devices and an Intelli Track Software system with the ability of printing. An Intelli Track Software system would link the whole corporation through a LAN. Production will be hugely increased through the improvement of real time once this streamline is applied. Having innovative functioning methods will give management a clear, imminent vision on how to give superior traceability. In terms of the end product distribution, an Order Fulfillment System or OFS will vastly advance any system that helps in fulfilling a client order. Implementation of an OFS normally comprises a WHS. An OFS is a technology that re-palletizes and de-palletizes commodities for delivery to a sales center.

Summarize the political, economic, and social developments from 1763 Essay

Summarize the political, economic, and social developments from 1763 to 1775 that led to the war between the American colonies and England - Essay Example The annihilation of the Stamp Act and unpopular taxes in 1765-1766 have improved the relations between American provinces and Britain but the American agents have felt that they are able to claim greater economic and political independence in creating and controlling the inner market. When William Pitt became the head of administration the tensions decreased to some extend in summer 1766, especially taking into account his Declaratory Act in which the American colonies were granted freedom in terms of inner taxation. Business and politics in England during the 18th century was based on the personal relations, such bonds as amity and marriage were of high importance in developing the trading community. For example, the religious beliefs tied men in economic ventures - Quakers dealt only with co-religionists. The Currency Act of 1764 was introduced by the Board of Trade and it was less severe than intended by the commission. Unlike the Act of 1751 which established the rules for bills, the new Act of 1764 was more a compromise among the merchants, agents and commissioners of trade. Such bill of credit was beneficial for the colonies because the money was already retiring and in the years 1766-1768 the amount of cash circulating was continuously decreasing. When the French and Indian wars were at the concluding stage, the protection of American colonies was perceived as the major task - the British government has sent 10,000 troops to North America in order to defend the new territories1. It has led to the constitutional disputes. The Grenville ministry realised that the price for protection was too high - the debt increased while the participation of American troops in colony protection was minimal. As the result, the colonial assemblies had devoted all their efforts to limit the agent's freedom of action and challenged their political authority in America. The arrival of the British troops caused the constitutional and political debates about the rights and freedoms of colonies. The Mutiny Acts were regularly passed as the part of the Revolutionary Settlement of 1688 while when there was an attempt to extend these acts to America, the questions regarding the personal freedoms of individual and the questionable power of Parliament in colonies were raised. Moreover, the troops had no permanent facilities and the local population was expected to support them with food and housing, however, in many colonies the civil authorities refused to provide any services to the British troops. In addition, very little was done to reduce the three-pence duty - the tax the Americans believed was prohibitive and slowed down the development of the Northern colonies. The ministry did not accept this analysis and passed the duty into practice, as the result, many of the officials executing this law were seized and imprisoned by the local authorities. Weakness of the British Administration During the winter 1765-1766 the British colonial policies were influenced the most both by the colonial agents and British merchants2. The Stamp Act was annihilated, the taxes on imports were reduced and the trade laws became less strict. Even though these changes seem to be not important and small, they became the beginning of separation from the motherland - Britain. The American Whigs have boycotted the British goods and managed to put

Fast Food versus Homemade Food Essay Example for Free

Fast Food versus Homemade Food Essay On the other hand, home-made food has less attraction than fast food. A reason for this is that home-made food needs lots of time until it gets ready. For instance, people should wait for several hours in order to have a ready home-made meal. Another reason is that home-made food is less convenient than fast food. For example, you may not find all the ingredients you need in one grocery, yet you have to look in several groceries until you find all the ingredients. Home-made food is much healthier than fast food, and therefore, people will enjoy eating their meals without thinking of health problems. In conclusion, both fast food and home-made food have significant divergence in preparation time, convenience and quality. Fast food might be better in saving time and being more convenient, while home-made food might be better in quality. I do believe that home-made food is much better than fast food, because peoples health is The questions by Dixit saab: 1. Chule Ki Roti is better or bread. 2. Fast Food is better or customs(regular ) food. , are most relevant in todayss context. I prefer regular food but not fast food. Nutritious, hygenenic food is most important. Even in fast food if it is hygenic, nutritious it can be taken. Many a time we are forced to take fast food which is not so hygenic or nutritious ,because of the urgrncy , in place of the meals we take. The regular intake of fast foods in place of regular food is not suggestable which may kill apetite and person become weak. Inthe present day stressful jobs the person is consuming his physical, mental talents tocope with work schedules. Since body is also a machine we should give necessary inputs through food and required rest so that body functions smoothly. Occasional fast food is unaviodable. But one should take care of health by taking healthy food. Health is Wealth.

Development of Sustainability in Urban Living

Development of Sustainability in Urban Living The Compact City and Sustainable Development Recent research has proved that the form of a town or a city can affect its sustainability (1). This is not only because of the socio cultural factors but also mainly because of the shape, size, density and uses of a city. This is obvious because the nature of business and the environment encompassing the city or town directly affects the sustainability of the city. Alongside, the increase in the urban intensifications anthem urban development in order to increase the use of the urban geography so as to increase the productivity, has further increased the need for a sustainable urban form only when the process of development and urban intensification will be effective in achieving the desired goal of urban development and sustainable urban form. The uncontrolled development and the increasing dispersal of the city further destruct the sustainable urban form. The increase in pollution due to the highway traffic and industrial development has also made the city not environment-friendly eventually making the urban life un-sustainable as well as complicated. Hence the need for an environment-friendly and people-friendly urban form in order to gain sustainability and growth is essential. This report aims to present an insight on the question that whether sustainable urban form is achievable or not. The idea of compact city life and sustainable urban form is increasing in the twenty-first century because of the increased problems faced by the authorities in co-ordinating the cities. Hence a research on this topic is imperative to provide an insight on the essential factors that contribute to the sustainable urban form and ultimately derive upon the conclusion of whether the sustainable urban form can be achieved or not. 1.2: Aim and Objectives The aim of this report is to establish whether Sustainable urban forms achievable or not. The aim is accomplished by embracing the report on the following objectives Objective 1: To conduct a critical analysis on the concept of sustainable development. This is achieved by analysing the existing situation of the urban life and analysing the governmental policies against the policies of Forum for the future. This analysis will throw light on the current situation of the urban form, which is essential to understand the need for a sustainable form and identify the existing barriers that contribute to the un-sustainability of the urban life. Objective 2: Critically analyse the concept of compact city. Analyse its differences from the concept of dispersal and analyse the means of promoting social equity in compact city. Objective 3: Critically discuss the different sustainable models and the implemented designs with examples. Chapter 2: Problems of city life and sustainable development This chapter commences with an overview of problems with city life that answers the question what is wrong with city life? This is then followed by an overview on sustainable development. The definitions of the sustainable development from both the academic front and the government definitions are presented to the reader with examples. 2.1: What is wrong with the city life? The growth of the enterprise culture and the increase in the American style of dispersed business centres like the business parks and shopping supermarkets, away from the city has drained the city of its activity level and also increased the need for urban intensifications. The increased dispersal of the urban environment has also increased the pollution with increase in the traffic and driving habits of the general public to reach the places. Alongside, the planning in the UlhÄ s mainly hindered the actual physical form of the city and its districts (2) by concentrating more upon the two dimensional structure of the city rather than considering the actual physical form of the city to achieve a cohesive and sustainable urban form. Furthermore, the cosmetic treatment of the existing streets and squares and the limited betterment of the hard and soft landscaping in the UlhÄ s further reduced the sustainability of the urban form and above all increased the issues faced like pollution. Another problem faced by the current city life is the singular model of the city and urban planning. This is because the singular approach to city life in different geographical locations is not applicable due tithe fact that the environmental factors and the socio-cultural factors vary with location and it is thus essential to analyse the urban form of city objectively in the light of the environmental factors of the individual city. Alongside, the singular approach to the urban design and planning not only hinders the sustainability but also affects the approach for a universal model for sustainable urban form (1). Also, the current urban form of incorporating the city as a business centre has increased the imbalance in between the number of city-dwellers and the workers in the city. The fact that the people working in the city and surrounding areas tend to live in a different location and commute for their work on a day-to-day basis (1) has increased the pollutions around the city and also increased the level of congestion on the highways further making the city life more tasteless eventually deteriorating the sustainable urban form. Alongside, the focus on the economic growth by the government and the increase in the government to promote the cities as the pivotal elements for their economic growth has actually shifted the focus from the sustainable development of the cities towards economic development resulting in a volatile urban set up that is prone to frequent changes and cannot accommodate the primary needs of the society which is the backbone for the very existence of the city. It is also established by Mike Jenks et al (1) that the current city life is more focused upon the technological developments leaving behind the cultural importance for the city. For example the ‘Uneven Population Density and Sprawl’ and the ‘Functional Zoning’ mentioned by Hildebrand Frey (2) justify that the current city life is more focused upon the development with respect to the changes in the technology and the global business rather than focusing on the development from the cultural perspective which is essential for the sustained development of the city life. The arguments that the city life in the present situation is predominantly focusing on the material needs of the society without laying emphasis upon the rational and ethical elements that are specific to the given geographical location (1) (2) further makes the city life a unwise choice for the general public thus deteriorating the city of its residents. 2.2: Definition of Sustainable Development Sustainable development is the most widely used term in this report and also in the analysis of urban form and environmental development. Thawed definition as mentioned by Mike Jenks (1) on sustainable development is â€Å" a development which is capable of meeting today’s needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs†. This definition is exactly similar to the definition of the government towards sustainable development (3) that defines sustainable development as â€Å"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs†. This makes it clear that the urban development should not only focus upon the development with respect to the growth in the technology and global markets but also incorporate the cultural and ethical factors that will provide room for the future generations to incorporate changes to meet their requirements. Also, it is clear that the focus on the technological development and a global perspective is necessary for achieving global position and economic development but still the emphasis on the development without compromising the ability for future development is essential and can be achieved only through embracing the urban development with the demographic and cultural factors with room for further development. Furthermore, the argument by the â€Å"Sustainable development Unit â€Å" of Government (3) that we are not even meeting the present needs on global basis is causing concern about the sustainable development of the city. This is because of the fact that the increase in the focus of the society to accommodate to the changes in the global and technological perspective leaving behind the primary ingredient of cultural and social elements which is the backbone for sustainable development in order to help the future generations to meet their needs. Alongside, the argument of the sustainable Development Unit (3)that the increasing use of the resources and environmental systems like water, conventional sources of energy and other exhaustible natural resources cannot carry on forever since the rate at which they are replenished in the by nature is extremely lower to the rate at which the resources are consumed. On the other hand the definition of the Forum for the future (4) on sustainable development â€Å"A dynamic process which enables all people to realise their potential and improve their quality of life in ways which simultaneously protect and enhance the Earths life support systems â€Å"lays more emphasis not only upon retaining the cultural and ethical factors but also upon the self development of the people in who live in the city in order to nurture the development right from the roots rather than the peripheral development of addressing the global and economic growth in the definition of the Government. Furthermore, the phrase ‘to enhance Earth’s life support systems’ in the definition further justifies that the urban development is sustainable only when the emphasis is provided to preserving the natural resources. The approach to Remaking Barnsley (5) â€Å"the 21st century Market Town â€Å"where the council is actually rethinking the entire Barnsley process in order to provide a sustainable world-class place for the future generations taking into account the cultural and social background of Barnsley is in line with the aforementioned definition of the Forum for the Future (4). Furthermore, the arguments by Mike Jenks (1) and Hildebrand Frey (2)that a sustainable development is achievable only when the development of the urban areas reflect upon the global and economic growth embracing the primary element of preserving the natural resources as well as emphasising on the cultural factors of the geography. The examples on sustainable housing discussed in the text (1) (2) justify this argument. 2.3: Conclusion: This discussion in this chapter has revealed that the current city life is actually deteriorating the natural resources and prone to changes without accommodating the need for a balance in the environment in order to gain sustainable development. Also, from the definitions of sustainable development, it is clear that the development can be achieved only when the urban development embraces the need to preserve the natural resources as well as implement changes by emphasizing upon the development of the people in the city as well as the city itself rather than addressing the changes at the peripheral level. From the above discussion it is thus established that the sustainable development of the urban form can be achieved only through the effective integration of the socio-cultural factors with the global and economic growth without depleting the natural resources. Chapter 3: Comparison the Policy Objectives In this chapter a profound discussion on the policy objectives of teak government and the Forum for the Future is presented to the reader. This is then followed by the analysis of the differences in the policies and the strategies proposed by the bodies in order to identify their compatibility and the ability to measure the success. This chapter aims to familiarise the policies and objectives to the reader prior to the analysis in Part 2 of the report. 3.1: Policy Objectives The objectives of the UK Government’s Sustainable development Unit for sustainable urban form (3) are 1. Social progress, which recognises the needs of everyone (i.e.) the needs apart from the essential needs of food clothing and water like locations for public gathering and cultural activities etc., This objective of the government was extensively deployed in the post war urban development in the 1950s and the 1960s as argued by Hildebrand Frey (2) who argues that the UK government’s strive to provide a higher quality of life with better community facilities. The development plan of 1951 (1) (2) that concentrated on providing the basic communal facilities and improving the quality of the houses through housing plans by the government were concentrated upon achieving the Social progress in the cities to meet the changes in the global world. Hildebrand Frey (2) argues that the government from the initial stages of urban development was concentrating upon the two-dimensional plan of the city and did not address the physical form of the city to accommodate the future changes. Als o the fact that the development was concentrating on the rapid economic development and growth in the global market rather than emphasising on the socio-cultural factors has further depleted the sustainability of the urban form itself. 2. Effective protection of the environment: As mentioned in the previous chapter, the increase in the transportation especially the motorway commuters in the UK since the late twentieth century is causing very high levels of pollution that is eventually causing adverse effects on global warming making the weather hot with record-breaking temperatures which is not a healthy sign for sustainable urban form. Even though the objective of the government to protect the environment is novel, the existing set up of the urban for in the UK is causing adverse effects on the environment not only in the form of pollution of air but also upon the societal factors itself. The increase in the government’s tendency to respond to the global changes and economic growth without encompassing the people and the development of the people (1) (2) in the city is also a major cause for hindering the sustainable urban form. 3. Prudent use of natural resources: This objective of prudent use of the natural resources by the Sustainable development Unit (3) of Government mainly focuses on preserving the non-renewable sources of energy like the fossil fuels. The efficient use of water and prevention of the wastage of natural resources including water and energy also form the primary elements of this objective of the Sustainable development Unit. 4. Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment: This objective of the Sustainable development Unit mainly focuses upon the economic development of the city through the increased level of employment. It is worth noting that the arguments of (1) and(2) on the government’s focus upon urban development through addressing economic growth and global changes rather than development of the people in the city is justified in this objective. Even though the objective focuses on higher level of employment of the people, it does not focus upon the development of the society that forms the city. The objectives of the Forum for the Future are discussed below 1. The preservation, conservation and protection of the environment and the prudent use of natural resources: This objective clearly emphasises upon the preservation of the natural resources as well as the prudent use of the resources. This statement not only emphasises upon the careful use of the natural resources but also upon the preservation of the existing resources explicitly. This is essential because of the fact that the initiative of the society to preserve the natural resources is the driving factor for the prudent use of the natural resources (4). 2. The relief of poverty and the improvement of the conditions of life in socially and economically disadvantaged communities. From this objective it is clear that the Forum for the Future is not only concentrating upon the development of the city areas but mainly upon the development of the people who form the city in order to achieve sustainable development. The example of the Remaking Barnsley (5) where the urban development of the city was approached with the idea of preserving the socio-cultural factors as well as nurturing the development of the people in the city instead of concentrating upon the development of the urban areas with respect to the global change and meet the economic growth. 3. The promotion of sustainable means of achieving economic growth and regeneration: This objective mainly suggests that the economic growth in the urban form can be sustained and achieved efficiently through achieving the above two objectives which will regenerate the walk of life of the people in the city eventually contributing to the economic growth. 3.2: Critical Analysis of the Policy objectives The major difference between the government objectives and the objectives of the Forum for the Future is the fact that the government approach to the sustainable urban form is predominantly focusing upon the economic development without focusing upon the development of the of the people in the city. This major difference in the policy objectives is the primary factor for the hindrance to the sustainable urban form in the UK. Alongside, the argument of Mike Jenks (1) that the sustainable urban form is achievable only through the development of the people in the city which is essential for the continuous growth of the society that forms the city in order to effectively achieve the sustainable urban form. Furthermore, the approach of the Forum for the Future in preserving the natural resources along with the prudent use of the resources emphasis more on the natural resources preservation and development from the basis of the city rather than the approach of the Sustainable development Unit of UK government to the prudent use of the natural resources without explicitly emphasising upon the preservation of the natural resources. Even though the policy objectives of the Sustainable development Unit and the Forum for the Future are different it is appreciable that both the government body as well as the charity organization are striving towards the preservation of the environment. The argument of Dr Bob Giddings (6) that the perception of the city centres as segregated areas of functional uses by the Sustainable development Unit is the major factor for the failure of the strategy to achieve sustainable development in the cities even though the policy objectives of the Sustainable development Unit strives to develop the urban areas in the UK as key elements for growth. From the objectives of the UK government Sustainable development Unit, the strategy of the government is primarily to protect the environment and increase the economic level of the urban areas to achieve sustainable development. This strategy of achieving sustainable urban form is not completely successful as argued by Dr Bob Giddings (6)since the development does not embrace the cultural values of the geography or the development of the people in the city who are the backbone for the mere existence of the city (1) (2). Even though the strategy does not focus upon the people development like its counterpart, the underlying idea of protecting the environment is easily measurable in this case since the prudent use of the natural resources for example can be accurately measured through the calculation of the use of energy resources by the general public and industries along with their classification and level of pollution. This ability to measure the strategy is the predominant factor for the implementation of the Sustainable development Unit in the UK urban form for sustainable development. On the other hand from the objectives of the Forum for the Future we can see that the strategy embraces the development of the people in the society in order to contribute to the economic development which will provide sustainable urban form since the roots of the urban form (i.e.)the people development is the focus. The development of the people in the society will obviously create the awareness of protecting the environment and preserving the natural resources resulting in the prudent use. Even though the above argument justifies that the emphasis on the people development is essential for the development of the urban for from the basis in order to achieve sustainable urban for, the ability to measure the actual development of the people in the society and their contribution to preserving the natural resources is difficult to measure and only the factors mentioned in the former case can be accurately measured. This measure does not always justify the requirement thus restricting the ability to accurately measure the results of the objectives of Forum for the Future. Apart from the issues of measuring the results the inherent problem is the compatibility of the policies in the urban form in order to actually implement the strategy. Mike Jenks et al (1) argue that the practise of the urban form in many cities is not always the same as in theory and to achieve the strategy effectively is not always possible due to the inherent issue of the extent to which a specific policy incompatible to the given urban form. From the above discussions it is clear that the government objectives of the urban form are more compatible to those of Forum for the Future mainly because of the lucid form of the objectives and the easy to implement nature. This further adds the credit to the policy objectives of Sustainable development Unit (3) against the policy objectives of is counterpart. 3.3: Conclusion The discussion of the policy objectives of the government and the Forum for the Future has revealed that the sustainable urban form should preserve the environment and the natural resources. Also, the analysis on the policy objectives have revealed that the objectives are achievable only through the prudent use of the resources and the development of the people in the city than focusing only upon the economic development and addressing to global changes. Furthermore, the arguments on the compatibility and the analysis of the strategy have revealed that the Sustainable development Unit (3) of the UK government policy is more compatible than that of the Forum for the Future. Part 2: The Compact City Chapter 4: The Compact City In this chapter, a discussion on the concept of the compact city is presented to the reader. The chapter commences with the definition of the compact city followed by the discussion on the various aspects associated with the compact city concept. 4.1: Definition of Compact City Mike Jenks et al (1) define the compact city as â€Å"a freestanding urban settlement and defined as embracing one or all of three categories: high density, a mixed-use city and an intensified city†. This definition is obviously presented from an academic background and hence in the practical life the definition of the Compact city drills down toâ€Å" a city that has environmental and energy advantages and social benefits† (2), which emphasises on the preservation of the natural resources and emphasises on the development of the people. From the above definition it is clear that in order to achieve the policy objectives discussed in the previous chapter a model of the Compact city will be helpful to achieve the goal of sustainable urban form. Apart from the above argument, the compact city of the urban form as described by (1) (2) focus upon the idea of integrated development(i.e.) achieving development in all spheres of the social and personal life of the people in the city in order to gain sustainable urban form. The major advantages of establishing the compact city include the easy accessibility to facilities, reduced need for travel, health and social interaction as argued by Mike Jenks et al (1). The highlights of the compact city as argued by (1) (2) are discussed here with examples from case studies and reports on urban development and sustainable urban form. 4.2: Intensification Intensification as mentioned by (2) in the light of a compact is mainly concerned with the increased usage of the existing landscape in the geographical area that constitutes the city judiciously. The above statement means not only the extensive use pdf the land for housing development but mainly to utilise the space to achieve self-sufficiency to a certain level. The concept of urban intensification as argued by Mike Jenks et al (7) (1) argue that the intensification in terms of the urban development and achieving sustainability is by implementing the intensification in terms of both the usage of the urban space and in terms of the activity levels. The two categories of the intensifications described by Mike Jenks et al (1) is mentioned below Intensification of built form In this category of urban form, the focus is on the development of the previously undeveloped locations of the city in order to maintain balance in the entire city (i.e.) a balance in the level of the growth and the social development of the people, which is discussed in chapter6. This also includes the development of the existing buildings in the city in order to intensify their use and increase the activity level of the people through the effective use of the buildings and sites in the city. The case of the Barnsley development (5) where the recreation of the city as a twenty first century town is primarily focused upon establishing the town (i.e.) city centre of the urban form as the pivotal form for interaction with its surrounding villages, and other localities for intensifying the use of the urban space and interaction between the city with the surroundings in order to establish a balance in the urban form. The above statement makes it clear that the intensification of the built form in the compact city approach to the sustainable urban form is not only through the development of the city as an entity but through the intensification of the usage of the so developed space with the surroundings in order to increase the intensity of the urban development so as to gain sustainability. Intensification of Activity Katie Williams (8) argues that the intensification of the built form can be sustained in order to gain the sustainable urban form only through the intensification of the activity levels that contribute tithe intensification of the usage of the urban space thus increasing the interaction of the city with its surroundings. In the example of their making of the Barnsley (5) itself, the clear cut definition of each element of the entire urban form and the role of the entities so defined in the overall urban process makes it clear that only through intensifying the activity levels, the compact city initiative can be palpable to gain sustainable urban form. Even though the above arguments support that the intensification of the urban space and activity in a compact city will increase the level of sustainability of the urban form, the argument by Dr Bob Giddings (6)that the urban intensification will not only increase the interaction but also increase the need for rapid development and quick response to changes which will uproot the basic conception of achieving development of the people and sustainable urban form which are the essential elements for the compact city. The fact that the uncontrolled urban intensification will increase not only increase the interaction among the participants in the urban form but also affect the stability of the urban form because of the quick response of the participants to address economic changes and gain growth which will not only increase the use of natural resources but also increase the threat of social inequality. The arguments on acceptable urban intensification (1) justify the above arguments. 4.3: Mixed Use The idea of mixed use in the compact city argued by Hildebrand Frey (2)focuses upon a more decentralised approach to the urban use as opposed the case of intensification where the compact city concept was primarily revolving around the town centre of the city making it a more centralised approach. In this approach, Hildebrand Frey (2) decentralised manner of organizing the urban form and encouraging the various participants of the urban form to interact not only as specific entities to the city but among themselves in order to achieve increased level of self-sufficiency. The example of the Chinese cities with own farm belts in the cities in order to meet their agriculture requirements so as to be self-sufficient justifies the above argument. Alongside, one should understand the fact that the intensification of the urban form apparently loses the importance for preserving the natural resources and mainly for the prudent use of the resources in order to gain sustainable urban form. In the mixed approach the deployment of the farm strips in the city itself making city farming as a rural occupation not only increase the self-sufficiency level of the city in terms of food but also help in the preservation of natural resources mainly preventing soil erosion and increasing the rain fall thus preventing depletion of water in the city areas. The above scenario not only stands for the establishment of specific strips of the urban space for farming but mainly to encourage the residents to involve in house farming by growing vegetables in their own gardens. The increase in the price of vegetables during the 1970s saw the increase in the house farming in the urban areas, which further strengthens the mixed approach to the compact city. Even though the above arguments justify that urban farming will not only increase the self-sufficiency level but also reduce pollution and help preserve the natural resources, cities like London in the Cannot actually accommodate this approach mainly because of the tremendous increase in the industries and global businesses in the city. The arguments of Hildebrand Frey (2) that the city farming is becoming remote because of the very approach to the agriculture in itself. The fact that agriculture itself is treated as an industry and the increase in the demand for quality products across the cities in the UK has truly isolated the farming and green wedges in the busy cities like London, Manchester and Birmingham in the UK. The Urban Regeneration assessment of Keynote Plc. (9) further argues that even though the actual presence of the city farming is obsolete in most of the cities by virtue of the development, the initiative of the city councils and the government to maintain the green strips either artificial or natural in the city areas will help reduce the pollution in the city atmosphere. Apart from the farming element in the mixed approach to the compact city, the essential ingredient that increases the sustainability of the urban form in the mixed approach is that the interaction is not only in controlled manner but the activity levels of the people and there sources in the mixed form of the compact city are put to optimal use. The increase in the growth of the business parks surrounding the natural locations not only increases the interaction of the city but also mainly increases the sustainability and reduces the level of pollution due to the presence of the green wedges (either artificial or natural) in the city. The above arguments on the mixed use in the context of the compact city still poses a question of whether it is achievable mainly because of the fact that the approach of either urban intensification or the mixed-use is pertained to the extent of the availability of resources and above all the involvement of the aut Development of Sustainability in Urban Living Development of Sustainability in Urban Living The Compact City and Sustainable Development Recent research has proved that the form of a town or a city can affect its sustainability (1). This is not only because of the socio cultural factors but also mainly because of the shape, size, density and uses of a city. This is obvious because the nature of business and the environment encompassing the city or town directly affects the sustainability of the city. Alongside, the increase in the urban intensifications anthem urban development in order to increase the use of the urban geography so as to increase the productivity, has further increased the need for a sustainable urban form only when the process of development and urban intensification will be effective in achieving the desired goal of urban development and sustainable urban form. The uncontrolled development and the increasing dispersal of the city further destruct the sustainable urban form. The increase in pollution due to the highway traffic and industrial development has also made the city not environment-friendly eventually making the urban life un-sustainable as well as complicated. Hence the need for an environment-friendly and people-friendly urban form in order to gain sustainability and growth is essential. This report aims to present an insight on the question that whether sustainable urban form is achievable or not. The idea of compact city life and sustainable urban form is increasing in the twenty-first century because of the increased problems faced by the authorities in co-ordinating the cities. Hence a research on this topic is imperative to provide an insight on the essential factors that contribute to the sustainable urban form and ultimately derive upon the conclusion of whether the sustainable urban form can be achieved or not. 1.2: Aim and Objectives The aim of this report is to establish whether Sustainable urban forms achievable or not. The aim is accomplished by embracing the report on the following objectives Objective 1: To conduct a critical analysis on the concept of sustainable development. This is achieved by analysing the existing situation of the urban life and analysing the governmental policies against the policies of Forum for the future. This analysis will throw light on the current situation of the urban form, which is essential to understand the need for a sustainable form and identify the existing barriers that contribute to the un-sustainability of the urban life. Objective 2: Critically analyse the concept of compact city. Analyse its differences from the concept of dispersal and analyse the means of promoting social equity in compact city. Objective 3: Critically discuss the different sustainable models and the implemented designs with examples. Chapter 2: Problems of city life and sustainable development This chapter commences with an overview of problems with city life that answers the question what is wrong with city life? This is then followed by an overview on sustainable development. The definitions of the sustainable development from both the academic front and the government definitions are presented to the reader with examples. 2.1: What is wrong with the city life? The growth of the enterprise culture and the increase in the American style of dispersed business centres like the business parks and shopping supermarkets, away from the city has drained the city of its activity level and also increased the need for urban intensifications. The increased dispersal of the urban environment has also increased the pollution with increase in the traffic and driving habits of the general public to reach the places. Alongside, the planning in the UlhÄ s mainly hindered the actual physical form of the city and its districts (2) by concentrating more upon the two dimensional structure of the city rather than considering the actual physical form of the city to achieve a cohesive and sustainable urban form. Furthermore, the cosmetic treatment of the existing streets and squares and the limited betterment of the hard and soft landscaping in the UlhÄ s further reduced the sustainability of the urban form and above all increased the issues faced like pollution. Another problem faced by the current city life is the singular model of the city and urban planning. This is because the singular approach to city life in different geographical locations is not applicable due tithe fact that the environmental factors and the socio-cultural factors vary with location and it is thus essential to analyse the urban form of city objectively in the light of the environmental factors of the individual city. Alongside, the singular approach to the urban design and planning not only hinders the sustainability but also affects the approach for a universal model for sustainable urban form (1). Also, the current urban form of incorporating the city as a business centre has increased the imbalance in between the number of city-dwellers and the workers in the city. The fact that the people working in the city and surrounding areas tend to live in a different location and commute for their work on a day-to-day basis (1) has increased the pollutions around the city and also increased the level of congestion on the highways further making the city life more tasteless eventually deteriorating the sustainable urban form. Alongside, the focus on the economic growth by the government and the increase in the government to promote the cities as the pivotal elements for their economic growth has actually shifted the focus from the sustainable development of the cities towards economic development resulting in a volatile urban set up that is prone to frequent changes and cannot accommodate the primary needs of the society which is the backbone for the very existence of the city. It is also established by Mike Jenks et al (1) that the current city life is more focused upon the technological developments leaving behind the cultural importance for the city. For example the ‘Uneven Population Density and Sprawl’ and the ‘Functional Zoning’ mentioned by Hildebrand Frey (2) justify that the current city life is more focused upon the development with respect to the changes in the technology and the global business rather than focusing on the development from the cultural perspective which is essential for the sustained development of the city life. The arguments that the city life in the present situation is predominantly focusing on the material needs of the society without laying emphasis upon the rational and ethical elements that are specific to the given geographical location (1) (2) further makes the city life a unwise choice for the general public thus deteriorating the city of its residents. 2.2: Definition of Sustainable Development Sustainable development is the most widely used term in this report and also in the analysis of urban form and environmental development. Thawed definition as mentioned by Mike Jenks (1) on sustainable development is â€Å" a development which is capable of meeting today’s needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs†. This definition is exactly similar to the definition of the government towards sustainable development (3) that defines sustainable development as â€Å"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs†. This makes it clear that the urban development should not only focus upon the development with respect to the growth in the technology and global markets but also incorporate the cultural and ethical factors that will provide room for the future generations to incorporate changes to meet their requirements. Also, it is clear that the focus on the technological development and a global perspective is necessary for achieving global position and economic development but still the emphasis on the development without compromising the ability for future development is essential and can be achieved only through embracing the urban development with the demographic and cultural factors with room for further development. Furthermore, the argument by the â€Å"Sustainable development Unit â€Å" of Government (3) that we are not even meeting the present needs on global basis is causing concern about the sustainable development of the city. This is because of the fact that the increase in the focus of the society to accommodate to the changes in the global and technological perspective leaving behind the primary ingredient of cultural and social elements which is the backbone for sustainable development in order to help the future generations to meet their needs. Alongside, the argument of the sustainable Development Unit (3)that the increasing use of the resources and environmental systems like water, conventional sources of energy and other exhaustible natural resources cannot carry on forever since the rate at which they are replenished in the by nature is extremely lower to the rate at which the resources are consumed. On the other hand the definition of the Forum for the future (4) on sustainable development â€Å"A dynamic process which enables all people to realise their potential and improve their quality of life in ways which simultaneously protect and enhance the Earths life support systems â€Å"lays more emphasis not only upon retaining the cultural and ethical factors but also upon the self development of the people in who live in the city in order to nurture the development right from the roots rather than the peripheral development of addressing the global and economic growth in the definition of the Government. Furthermore, the phrase ‘to enhance Earth’s life support systems’ in the definition further justifies that the urban development is sustainable only when the emphasis is provided to preserving the natural resources. The approach to Remaking Barnsley (5) â€Å"the 21st century Market Town â€Å"where the council is actually rethinking the entire Barnsley process in order to provide a sustainable world-class place for the future generations taking into account the cultural and social background of Barnsley is in line with the aforementioned definition of the Forum for the Future (4). Furthermore, the arguments by Mike Jenks (1) and Hildebrand Frey (2)that a sustainable development is achievable only when the development of the urban areas reflect upon the global and economic growth embracing the primary element of preserving the natural resources as well as emphasising on the cultural factors of the geography. The examples on sustainable housing discussed in the text (1) (2) justify this argument. 2.3: Conclusion: This discussion in this chapter has revealed that the current city life is actually deteriorating the natural resources and prone to changes without accommodating the need for a balance in the environment in order to gain sustainable development. Also, from the definitions of sustainable development, it is clear that the development can be achieved only when the urban development embraces the need to preserve the natural resources as well as implement changes by emphasizing upon the development of the people in the city as well as the city itself rather than addressing the changes at the peripheral level. From the above discussion it is thus established that the sustainable development of the urban form can be achieved only through the effective integration of the socio-cultural factors with the global and economic growth without depleting the natural resources. Chapter 3: Comparison the Policy Objectives In this chapter a profound discussion on the policy objectives of teak government and the Forum for the Future is presented to the reader. This is then followed by the analysis of the differences in the policies and the strategies proposed by the bodies in order to identify their compatibility and the ability to measure the success. This chapter aims to familiarise the policies and objectives to the reader prior to the analysis in Part 2 of the report. 3.1: Policy Objectives The objectives of the UK Government’s Sustainable development Unit for sustainable urban form (3) are 1. Social progress, which recognises the needs of everyone (i.e.) the needs apart from the essential needs of food clothing and water like locations for public gathering and cultural activities etc., This objective of the government was extensively deployed in the post war urban development in the 1950s and the 1960s as argued by Hildebrand Frey (2) who argues that the UK government’s strive to provide a higher quality of life with better community facilities. The development plan of 1951 (1) (2) that concentrated on providing the basic communal facilities and improving the quality of the houses through housing plans by the government were concentrated upon achieving the Social progress in the cities to meet the changes in the global world. Hildebrand Frey (2) argues that the government from the initial stages of urban development was concentrating upon the two-dimensional plan of the city and did not address the physical form of the city to accommodate the future changes. Als o the fact that the development was concentrating on the rapid economic development and growth in the global market rather than emphasising on the socio-cultural factors has further depleted the sustainability of the urban form itself. 2. Effective protection of the environment: As mentioned in the previous chapter, the increase in the transportation especially the motorway commuters in the UK since the late twentieth century is causing very high levels of pollution that is eventually causing adverse effects on global warming making the weather hot with record-breaking temperatures which is not a healthy sign for sustainable urban form. Even though the objective of the government to protect the environment is novel, the existing set up of the urban for in the UK is causing adverse effects on the environment not only in the form of pollution of air but also upon the societal factors itself. The increase in the government’s tendency to respond to the global changes and economic growth without encompassing the people and the development of the people (1) (2) in the city is also a major cause for hindering the sustainable urban form. 3. Prudent use of natural resources: This objective of prudent use of the natural resources by the Sustainable development Unit (3) of Government mainly focuses on preserving the non-renewable sources of energy like the fossil fuels. The efficient use of water and prevention of the wastage of natural resources including water and energy also form the primary elements of this objective of the Sustainable development Unit. 4. Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment: This objective of the Sustainable development Unit mainly focuses upon the economic development of the city through the increased level of employment. It is worth noting that the arguments of (1) and(2) on the government’s focus upon urban development through addressing economic growth and global changes rather than development of the people in the city is justified in this objective. Even though the objective focuses on higher level of employment of the people, it does not focus upon the development of the society that forms the city. The objectives of the Forum for the Future are discussed below 1. The preservation, conservation and protection of the environment and the prudent use of natural resources: This objective clearly emphasises upon the preservation of the natural resources as well as the prudent use of the resources. This statement not only emphasises upon the careful use of the natural resources but also upon the preservation of the existing resources explicitly. This is essential because of the fact that the initiative of the society to preserve the natural resources is the driving factor for the prudent use of the natural resources (4). 2. The relief of poverty and the improvement of the conditions of life in socially and economically disadvantaged communities. From this objective it is clear that the Forum for the Future is not only concentrating upon the development of the city areas but mainly upon the development of the people who form the city in order to achieve sustainable development. The example of the Remaking Barnsley (5) where the urban development of the city was approached with the idea of preserving the socio-cultural factors as well as nurturing the development of the people in the city instead of concentrating upon the development of the urban areas with respect to the global change and meet the economic growth. 3. The promotion of sustainable means of achieving economic growth and regeneration: This objective mainly suggests that the economic growth in the urban form can be sustained and achieved efficiently through achieving the above two objectives which will regenerate the walk of life of the people in the city eventually contributing to the economic growth. 3.2: Critical Analysis of the Policy objectives The major difference between the government objectives and the objectives of the Forum for the Future is the fact that the government approach to the sustainable urban form is predominantly focusing upon the economic development without focusing upon the development of the of the people in the city. This major difference in the policy objectives is the primary factor for the hindrance to the sustainable urban form in the UK. Alongside, the argument of Mike Jenks (1) that the sustainable urban form is achievable only through the development of the people in the city which is essential for the continuous growth of the society that forms the city in order to effectively achieve the sustainable urban form. Furthermore, the approach of the Forum for the Future in preserving the natural resources along with the prudent use of the resources emphasis more on the natural resources preservation and development from the basis of the city rather than the approach of the Sustainable development Unit of UK government to the prudent use of the natural resources without explicitly emphasising upon the preservation of the natural resources. Even though the policy objectives of the Sustainable development Unit and the Forum for the Future are different it is appreciable that both the government body as well as the charity organization are striving towards the preservation of the environment. The argument of Dr Bob Giddings (6) that the perception of the city centres as segregated areas of functional uses by the Sustainable development Unit is the major factor for the failure of the strategy to achieve sustainable development in the cities even though the policy objectives of the Sustainable development Unit strives to develop the urban areas in the UK as key elements for growth. From the objectives of the UK government Sustainable development Unit, the strategy of the government is primarily to protect the environment and increase the economic level of the urban areas to achieve sustainable development. This strategy of achieving sustainable urban form is not completely successful as argued by Dr Bob Giddings (6)since the development does not embrace the cultural values of the geography or the development of the people in the city who are the backbone for the mere existence of the city (1) (2). Even though the strategy does not focus upon the people development like its counterpart, the underlying idea of protecting the environment is easily measurable in this case since the prudent use of the natural resources for example can be accurately measured through the calculation of the use of energy resources by the general public and industries along with their classification and level of pollution. This ability to measure the strategy is the predominant factor for the implementation of the Sustainable development Unit in the UK urban form for sustainable development. On the other hand from the objectives of the Forum for the Future we can see that the strategy embraces the development of the people in the society in order to contribute to the economic development which will provide sustainable urban form since the roots of the urban form (i.e.)the people development is the focus. The development of the people in the society will obviously create the awareness of protecting the environment and preserving the natural resources resulting in the prudent use. Even though the above argument justifies that the emphasis on the people development is essential for the development of the urban for from the basis in order to achieve sustainable urban for, the ability to measure the actual development of the people in the society and their contribution to preserving the natural resources is difficult to measure and only the factors mentioned in the former case can be accurately measured. This measure does not always justify the requirement thus restricting the ability to accurately measure the results of the objectives of Forum for the Future. Apart from the issues of measuring the results the inherent problem is the compatibility of the policies in the urban form in order to actually implement the strategy. Mike Jenks et al (1) argue that the practise of the urban form in many cities is not always the same as in theory and to achieve the strategy effectively is not always possible due to the inherent issue of the extent to which a specific policy incompatible to the given urban form. From the above discussions it is clear that the government objectives of the urban form are more compatible to those of Forum for the Future mainly because of the lucid form of the objectives and the easy to implement nature. This further adds the credit to the policy objectives of Sustainable development Unit (3) against the policy objectives of is counterpart. 3.3: Conclusion The discussion of the policy objectives of the government and the Forum for the Future has revealed that the sustainable urban form should preserve the environment and the natural resources. Also, the analysis on the policy objectives have revealed that the objectives are achievable only through the prudent use of the resources and the development of the people in the city than focusing only upon the economic development and addressing to global changes. Furthermore, the arguments on the compatibility and the analysis of the strategy have revealed that the Sustainable development Unit (3) of the UK government policy is more compatible than that of the Forum for the Future. Part 2: The Compact City Chapter 4: The Compact City In this chapter, a discussion on the concept of the compact city is presented to the reader. The chapter commences with the definition of the compact city followed by the discussion on the various aspects associated with the compact city concept. 4.1: Definition of Compact City Mike Jenks et al (1) define the compact city as â€Å"a freestanding urban settlement and defined as embracing one or all of three categories: high density, a mixed-use city and an intensified city†. This definition is obviously presented from an academic background and hence in the practical life the definition of the Compact city drills down toâ€Å" a city that has environmental and energy advantages and social benefits† (2), which emphasises on the preservation of the natural resources and emphasises on the development of the people. From the above definition it is clear that in order to achieve the policy objectives discussed in the previous chapter a model of the Compact city will be helpful to achieve the goal of sustainable urban form. Apart from the above argument, the compact city of the urban form as described by (1) (2) focus upon the idea of integrated development(i.e.) achieving development in all spheres of the social and personal life of the people in the city in order to gain sustainable urban form. The major advantages of establishing the compact city include the easy accessibility to facilities, reduced need for travel, health and social interaction as argued by Mike Jenks et al (1). The highlights of the compact city as argued by (1) (2) are discussed here with examples from case studies and reports on urban development and sustainable urban form. 4.2: Intensification Intensification as mentioned by (2) in the light of a compact is mainly concerned with the increased usage of the existing landscape in the geographical area that constitutes the city judiciously. The above statement means not only the extensive use pdf the land for housing development but mainly to utilise the space to achieve self-sufficiency to a certain level. The concept of urban intensification as argued by Mike Jenks et al (7) (1) argue that the intensification in terms of the urban development and achieving sustainability is by implementing the intensification in terms of both the usage of the urban space and in terms of the activity levels. The two categories of the intensifications described by Mike Jenks et al (1) is mentioned below Intensification of built form In this category of urban form, the focus is on the development of the previously undeveloped locations of the city in order to maintain balance in the entire city (i.e.) a balance in the level of the growth and the social development of the people, which is discussed in chapter6. This also includes the development of the existing buildings in the city in order to intensify their use and increase the activity level of the people through the effective use of the buildings and sites in the city. The case of the Barnsley development (5) where the recreation of the city as a twenty first century town is primarily focused upon establishing the town (i.e.) city centre of the urban form as the pivotal form for interaction with its surrounding villages, and other localities for intensifying the use of the urban space and interaction between the city with the surroundings in order to establish a balance in the urban form. The above statement makes it clear that the intensification of the built form in the compact city approach to the sustainable urban form is not only through the development of the city as an entity but through the intensification of the usage of the so developed space with the surroundings in order to increase the intensity of the urban development so as to gain sustainability. Intensification of Activity Katie Williams (8) argues that the intensification of the built form can be sustained in order to gain the sustainable urban form only through the intensification of the activity levels that contribute tithe intensification of the usage of the urban space thus increasing the interaction of the city with its surroundings. In the example of their making of the Barnsley (5) itself, the clear cut definition of each element of the entire urban form and the role of the entities so defined in the overall urban process makes it clear that only through intensifying the activity levels, the compact city initiative can be palpable to gain sustainable urban form. Even though the above arguments support that the intensification of the urban space and activity in a compact city will increase the level of sustainability of the urban form, the argument by Dr Bob Giddings (6)that the urban intensification will not only increase the interaction but also increase the need for rapid development and quick response to changes which will uproot the basic conception of achieving development of the people and sustainable urban form which are the essential elements for the compact city. The fact that the uncontrolled urban intensification will increase not only increase the interaction among the participants in the urban form but also affect the stability of the urban form because of the quick response of the participants to address economic changes and gain growth which will not only increase the use of natural resources but also increase the threat of social inequality. The arguments on acceptable urban intensification (1) justify the above arguments. 4.3: Mixed Use The idea of mixed use in the compact city argued by Hildebrand Frey (2)focuses upon a more decentralised approach to the urban use as opposed the case of intensification where the compact city concept was primarily revolving around the town centre of the city making it a more centralised approach. In this approach, Hildebrand Frey (2) decentralised manner of organizing the urban form and encouraging the various participants of the urban form to interact not only as specific entities to the city but among themselves in order to achieve increased level of self-sufficiency. The example of the Chinese cities with own farm belts in the cities in order to meet their agriculture requirements so as to be self-sufficient justifies the above argument. Alongside, one should understand the fact that the intensification of the urban form apparently loses the importance for preserving the natural resources and mainly for the prudent use of the resources in order to gain sustainable urban form. In the mixed approach the deployment of the farm strips in the city itself making city farming as a rural occupation not only increase the self-sufficiency level of the city in terms of food but also help in the preservation of natural resources mainly preventing soil erosion and increasing the rain fall thus preventing depletion of water in the city areas. The above scenario not only stands for the establishment of specific strips of the urban space for farming but mainly to encourage the residents to involve in house farming by growing vegetables in their own gardens. The increase in the price of vegetables during the 1970s saw the increase in the house farming in the urban areas, which further strengthens the mixed approach to the compact city. Even though the above arguments justify that urban farming will not only increase the self-sufficiency level but also reduce pollution and help preserve the natural resources, cities like London in the Cannot actually accommodate this approach mainly because of the tremendous increase in the industries and global businesses in the city. The arguments of Hildebrand Frey (2) that the city farming is becoming remote because of the very approach to the agriculture in itself. The fact that agriculture itself is treated as an industry and the increase in the demand for quality products across the cities in the UK has truly isolated the farming and green wedges in the busy cities like London, Manchester and Birmingham in the UK. The Urban Regeneration assessment of Keynote Plc. (9) further argues that even though the actual presence of the city farming is obsolete in most of the cities by virtue of the development, the initiative of the city councils and the government to maintain the green strips either artificial or natural in the city areas will help reduce the pollution in the city atmosphere. Apart from the farming element in the mixed approach to the compact city, the essential ingredient that increases the sustainability of the urban form in the mixed approach is that the interaction is not only in controlled manner but the activity levels of the people and there sources in the mixed form of the compact city are put to optimal use. The increase in the growth of the business parks surrounding the natural locations not only increases the interaction of the city but also mainly increases the sustainability and reduces the level of pollution due to the presence of the green wedges (either artificial or natural) in the city. The above arguments on the mixed use in the context of the compact city still poses a question of whether it is achievable mainly because of the fact that the approach of either urban intensification or the mixed-use is pertained to the extent of the availability of resources and above all the involvement of the aut